Friday, August 6, 2010

Healthcare Quality Organizations

The the following are excerpts from an article by my friend Joshua Chu (MS Healthcare Management University of Texas Dallas)


American Healthcare Accreditation
In the United States, most hospitals are accredited through an organization that is known as the Joint Commission. Joint Commission accreditation holds a significant stake within the healthcare system in that it controls Medicaid reimbursements. Joint Commission is a nonprofit organization, operated by volunteers. This is the aspiration of the men and women of Joint Commission: Their mission is "To continuously improve health care for the public, in collaboration with other stakeholders, by evaluating health care organizations and inspiring them to excel in providing safe and effective care of the highest quality and value.” (4)
The organization of Joint Commission came from humble beginnings when Earnest Codman began to promote reforms in hospitals to be compensated financially based on the quality of performance outcome in patient care. Thus, the American College of Surgeons Hospital Standardization Program was born, being the first healthcare quality entity to be wide spread across the nation.
The way that Joint Commission works is that they have a three year cycle in which hospitals are inspected in intervals to gain Joint Commission’s accreditation. During this time, the hospital will be inspected to see if it meets all the requirements of accomplishing compliance with applicable standards. When a hospital does meet their demands, they will be awarded accreditation.
The unique part of Joint Commission’s inspection is that their surveys are surprised and unannounced. As such, hospitals are encouraged to be in top performance in order to avoid losing their accreditation. This has the effect of improving consistency for performance of hospitals that receives accreditation from Joint Commission. Another part about their accreditation is that it is mainly on a pass/fail basis, where the findings of the surveyor is not published and the public will only know whether the hospital was able to acquire their accreditation or not.
As of today, Joint Commission has expanded into the Joint Commission International, where they are still operating as a nonprofit organization with the goal and mission to improve patient quality care worldwide. They extended their influence and offer to help improve the quality of hospitals and enhance patient safety across the globe.
Despite the fact that Joint Commission is the significant portion of American Hospital accreditation, it is not a monopoly and that many alternatives do exist, but not as to the same extent. The fact that Joint Commission is the standard of how the U.S. government decides on which hospital to approve for Medicaid reimbursement has significant influence of the accreditation market.
An example of an alternative accreditation to Joint Commission which is recognized nationwide is the Healthcare Facilities Accreditation Program, which was founded in 1943, making the organization older than Joint Commission. The organization was quickly able to gain recognition, and by the mid 1960s, the United States Congress decided that hospitals being accredited by this group were qualified to participate in the Medicare and Medicaid Programs. Their organizational goals are not so different from Joint Commission in that they desire to help healthcare facilities which are under their accreditation deliver high quality patient care by means of meeting the standards set by the organization. They are committed to continuous improvement through the constant review and streamlining of their survey processes.

International Healthcare Accreditation
The desire for quality within the medical community is not exclusive to America. This fact factored along with growing trend towards globalization and medical tourism, there is significant interests in international accreditation of hospitals. Joint Commission is one of those examples, having already grown beyond the borders of America. They have established themselves across over 60 other countries around the world. This trend is more prevalent within the developed world where growing consumerism culture is making the patients, otherwise known as the consumers, more conscious of the care that they are given, or in the other terms, services given. As such, quality assurance is a critical part of the value chain of a healthcare provider and is not unique to the United States.
Healthcare delivery has always been defined by three distinct pillars. They are availability, cost, and quality. In much of the European Union, availability and cost of their healthcare systems has been relatively well managed. Thus, many Europeans are now looking towards quality as the next challenge to tame. This is evident as the Office of Public Health and Social Affairs stated, “... patients have ever-greater expectations of what health systems ought to deliver,” although there has been a “... continuous rise in costs of services determined by scientific and technological innovation.”(2) Healthcare being available in many countries around the world, it is imperative for these institutions to also deliver on quality. This is not only serving more people but also saving more people in the end.
Another issue that has lead to greater interest in international accreditation has been more closely tied into the new trend of Global Healthcare. As our world begins to get smaller and traveling becomes more and more easy, the law of economics and sociology only dictates that humans will ultimately seek out the sources of highest output for the lowest cost. And in this case, healthcare is no exception to this rule. Thus, we see more and more Americans traveling overseas for Medical Tourism and vice versa. Many people around the world also travel to the United States for treatment due to long established specialty. It is no easy decision for any individual, however, for such a trip takes time and commitment. We are seeing a new generation of patients who will do much greater research to find the best solutions to their problems. In order for overseas hospitals to get the patients there for medical tourism, they must have two advantages which will ultimately prompt the patient to travel to them. In this instance, the two factors include cost and quality. With the deficit in healthcare ever increasing in the United States, healthcare affordability has become a much heated issue. This factored in with the recent economic down turn, many people in the United States remain uninsured due to the costs issue. An attractive option will present to this group through the address of their problems with money. These hospitals will a lot of times be able to deliver care in a much more efficient manner due to cheaper infrastructure and support cost, thus the savings are given back to the customer. When the entire operation cost results in a price tag cheaper than what the patient would have to pay for in deductibles, this is usually good enough bait to lure in a customer. However, cost itself is not good enough to attract a customer. The question of quality has to be addressed, as not many people would be willing to take risks to their lives all in the name of costs alone. This is where international accreditation comes in. They can assure to the customers around the world that the hospitals standards within other nations are the same, if not better, than the quality of hospitals they have at home. With these two issues addressed, often times many people will then be willing travel to get healthcare at Great Value. Quality without addressing would not work simply because most consumers cannot afford them and will be seen as an activity that is overpriced. On the other hand, cost without quality will also be unacceptable, for patients will only be gambling their lives to save money. Only with the two pillars addressed will patients be willing to travel, and with international accreditation, many patients across the globe have a quality standard of these Medical Tourist Hospitals that they can relate to and are familiar with since they are the same accreditation at home.
So what is international accreditation exactly? In many developed nations around the world, hospital accreditation has been in the making internally for time now. An example would be Joint Commission within the United States. As such, many older nations have naturally become the guru of quality in the healthcare industry, setting the bar for others to follow. For an example, recently, China has begun on their set of healthcare reforms. When it came to the topic of quality, they used the United States accreditation standards as a precedence for which they can set and work with. (3) As such, accreditation standards used here in the United States are being used by foreign countries to access their own healthcare systems. Therefore, many new prosperous nations seek the services of major international healthcare accreditation group in order to bring their own hospitals up to the global standards. Aside from improvement of quality service to their own citizens among these countries that have seek international accreditation, they also seek the accreditation on the basis of quality assurance to medical tourists, hoping to market themselves better in the process and attract more medical tourists to their facilities. This will secure their competitive advantage to better deliver care as well. Many foreign governments are getting into the game also due to the fact that medical tourism is becoming a huge industry among these countries bringing in revenue and growth to their economy in the process. As such, international accreditation will enable them to better market themselves to foreign citizens and attract them thus fueling the growth of their own healthcare industries within their perspective borders.


International Healthcare Accreditation Agencies
As a result of increasing demand of accreditation, the Trent Accreditation Scheme came into the expansionist policy that it is right now. Based in the United Kingdom, it was the accreditation force behind much of the hospital systems within the nation and for her colonies. As a result, as England began losing control over much of their former colonies, the Trent Accreditation Scheme still remained as a huge player in many of those countries, including former colonies of the crown in Asia specifically Hong Kong. As such, the organization was pushed into the international stage.
Joint Commission International is a group that we are all familiar with. Recently, it has expanded to well over 60 other countries around the world, and through it international accreditation activities in many countries, it would bring an income to the parent company of Joint Commission which is based in the United States. This would further show how high the demand is for hospitals around the world to be recognized as on par with American hospitals thus being able to compete for patients to enter into their market.
The International Society for Quality in Health Care is an accreditation organization that operates as an umbrella organization for its accreditation groups across the globe. Being based in Ireland, the group operates as primarily a consulting group that would further the quality of healthcare of the hospitals that they are working with. (5)


The Government as a Healthcare Quality Control Entity
With such significant profound effect on the population of any society that health care have, government is definitely a significantly important stake holder. As such, a lot of times, government would demand quality from healthcare providers so that the patients going through those hospitals will get better and not worse and the way that government influence healthcare quality is by means of laws, legislations and rewarding of reimbursements.
An example of legislation that has an effect on quality care and patient safety is the Patient Safety and Quality Improvement Act that was passed in 2005. (5) Through this bill, it established a system of patient safety organizations in order to encourage the discussion of case complications and how to avoid them.
The legislation is attributed as a response to the publication of “To Err is Human” by the Institute of Medicine 1999 report. Within this report it points to the staggering numbers that medical errors have on people. The report’s finding suggests that most errors are not the result of human error, but as the result of error within the process, an error that can be fixed by administrative diligence. Therefore, the report recommend that administration on all levels work together to improve safety making it harder for all levels within the system to make a mistake while making it easier to avoid preventable errors.
Other initiative including bargaining power that the government has in the forms of reimbursements control where hospitals have to be eligible for them, and as a result, giving rise to powers such as Joint Commission, where the government will not qualify a hospital unless they have accreditation from Joint Commission or one of their major competitive alternatives.


BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Raik, Eva. "Bmj.com Rapid Responses for Braithwaite, 323 (7310) 443-446." Bmj.com:. Aged Care Accreditation in Australia, 7 Nov. 2001. Web. 02 July 2010. .

2. "Contribution to the Reflection Process for a New EU Health Strategy." Venice Italy: Regional Health and Social Department, Web. 06 July 2010. .

3. Lipson, Roberta. "Investing in China's Hospitals -- CBR Nov-Dec 2004." The China Business Review: The Magazine of the US-China Business Council. Web. 03 July 2010. .

4. "Facts about The Joint Commission | Joint Commission." The Joint Commission. Joint Commission. Web. 13 Nov. 2009. .

5. "International Society for Quality in Health Care Inc, Accreditation." International Society for Quality in Health Care Ltd. Web. 01 Aug. 2010.

6. Six Sigma Job: Master Black Belt/Six Sigma Consultant- Telecommut." I Six Sigma Job Shop - Six Sigma Jobs. Web. 02 Aug. 2010. .

Thursday, August 5, 2010

EBM and Data Warehousing

Introduction
Evidence based medicine (EBM) replaces the traditional model of “medicine by authority” with a scientific model that avoids the use of underutilized and unsystematic information [1]. It encourages healthcare professionals and managers to be aware of and make use of published peer research. EBM requires that decisions makers have access to methodically compiled research information. It enhances knowledge and speeds the introduction of new therapies and withdrawal of ineffective ones. Thus, EBM represents a knowledge management system in the world of healthcare. Knowledge comes from information, which results from processing data. In the current age, information come a variety of sources including published scientific and technical literature, clearinghouses for public domain information, and internet. Information technology contributes to EBM in the following ways [2]:
•Reference databases – contains formal publication of clinical trials and reviews. Conventional databases are not usually effective in providing contextual, timely, precise information sought by physicians. However, entities like the Cochrane Collaboration Library do a good job of meeting the clinician criteria [3].
•Contextual and case-specific information – collected from current and past encounters with the healthcare system. Usually it consists of transaction data with the insurance provider and health provider’s administrative information system. It also accounts from the epidemiological and social factors for a particular site [4].
•Clinical and administrative data repositories – Data captured at the point of care through hospital information systems and electronic medical records
•Decision support software – Creation of clear and reproducible rules to facilitate clinical decision making
•Internet based interactive health information – Contains multimedia resources, unstructured content, unendorsed, and non-validated data.

EBM Data Warehouse cardinality
Evidence based medicine needs the support of organizations that provide means to search, store, and retrieve contextual patient relevant data to the clinician in a timely manner. This translates to the creation of a place where data is constantly maintained and updated, classified and populated to study variables uniformly under a nosological or classification system [5]. Using various data mining techniques the medical community can understand patterns of care, causal pathways, profile best practices, and create benchmarks. According to Kimble and Inmon (1996), the DW is Subject-Oriented, Integrated, Time-Variant, Non-Volatile data in support of management decisions. Data warehouse is also not only a product or a collection of subsystems, but also a process. The following table shows the relationship between
EBM functions and data warehouse

EBM feature------------------------------>Data Warehouse feature
A diagnosis needs to be established------>Query
A therapy mode or care pathways needs
to be determined------------------------->Query
A prognosis is needed-------------------->Prediction
Possible causes need to be verified------>Pattern recognition

An Architectural proposition
For the remainder of the paper, we will discuss the data warehouse part of the EBM criteria. Using the corporate information factory model [7] (Refer to illustration A) as a baseline, a nationally managed central enterprise data warehouse is not a feasible solution. EBM needs the following
•Information integration from heterogeneous systems
 Today, several repositories and data marts exist within the boundaries of institutions. The critical success factor is to have them share the data keeping in mind the questions of privacy, software regulation, and ethical and legal aspects of telecommunication in healthcare.
 Neutral standards like Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) combined with Service oriented architecture framework provide a paradigm to integrate information seamlessly
•Standardized facades for information exchange
 The single most important factor in information integration is the contract for information exchange. All institutions need to model their repositories off a reference implementation, which will have a skeletal, minimal set of fact and dimension tables like Patient, Clinic, Clinician, Drug, Therapy, Diagnosis, Prescription, and Encounter [8].
 From a governance standpoint, key stakeholders of medical data repositories must be accountable to participate in scheme of Electronic Health Record (EHR). EHR lays the foundation for inter institutional exchange of clinical data.
•A nationally managed online gateway to a network of repositories
 Bill Inmon defines this as a “virtual DW” which has the ability to farm out a query serviced in parallel by two or more distributed databases, aggregate and join results from those databases, and deliver a unified result set to the requester.

Hurdles
There are “hard” and “soft” hurdles for data warehouse based EBM. Some of them are below:
•Complex nature of the of the care delivery which includes interdependence of staff skills, clinical equipment, patient risks, guidelines and drugs and possibly other factors (Refer to illustration B)
•Need for continuous assessment of data warehouse rules and reconciling the outcomes and metrics with the medical advisory committee. This is a labor-intensive task.
•Need to alter physician mind mindset regarding EBM as cookbook medicine
•High volume of data and intricate integration needs bring forth technology and governance challenges.
Conclusions
Even if a national EBM program is technically available, getting the healthcare community to use it, is different matter altogether. Branded as cookbook medicine, health professionals feel that EBM will curtail their individual autonomy to practice. To the hospitals, the patient is market share and sharing patient information is counter intuitive. The patient is worried about privacy issues. Evidence based Practice Center program launched by the Agency for Healthcare Quality and Research has identified organizations to participate in its program. It has identified the priority conditions like cancer, diabetes, dementia, Ischemic heart disease, stroke, and hypertension to name a few. With the introduction of the new “meaningful use guideline” electronic data collection will be faster. The key to effective use of EBM rests on the ability to integrate disparate silos of knowledge built so far. Some of the recommended steps for major health and insurance providers would be to follow standards for information exchange, allow information query, mask patient identifiable information, create new data mart provide wrappers for existing ones, create IT governance organization, and create compliance programs. There is cost considerations involved in participating in these programs. As new incentives emerge for knowledge sharing and as technology-costs continue to come down, medical data warehousing or EBM will move closer to being a practical and viable solution.

References
[1] Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group. Evidence-based medicine: a new approach to teaching the practice of medicine. Journal of the American Medical Association, 1992, 268: 2420–2425.
[2] Information systems: the key to evidence-based health practice. Roberto J. Rodrigues. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 2000, 78 (11)
[3] The Cochrane Collaboration. Valuable resource for family physicians. Becker L. Canadian Family Physician, 1997, 43: 403–404, 412–414.
[4] Enkin MW, Jadad AR. Using anecdotal information in evidence-based health care: heresy or necessity? Annals of Oncology, 1998, 9: 963–966.
[5] Healthcare Informatics Research: From Data to Evidence-Based Management Thomas T. H. Wan Received: 25 March 2005 / Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. 2006
[6] Kimball. R. and Inmon, W.H. (1996). The Data Warehouse Toolkit. John Wiley: New York
[7] Corporate Information Factory. Bill Immon. http://www.inmoncif.com/library/cif/
[8] Towards a sustainable data warehouse for evidence based medicine.Vienna University of Technology, Nevena Stolba
[9] The relevance of data warehousing and data mining in the field of evidence-based medicine to support healthcare decision making. Nevena Stolba and A Min Tjoa
[10] Sen, A. and Sinha, A. P. (2005): A Comparison of Datawarehousing Methodologies, Communication of the ACM, 48(3), 79-84

Health Management in India

http://www.ihmr.org/ - Institute of Health Management
http://www.iphindia.org/joomla/index.php - Institute of Public Health
http://www.who.or.jp/sites/bangalore.html - WHO, Bangalore
http://cghr.org/aboutcghr.html - Center for Global Health Research
http://www.hispindia.org/ - HISP India
- PHFI Newsletter
http://www.epos.in - EPOS India